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Brief Introduction to Shaanxi Province and its Environment Protection

1. REGIONAL FEATURES

Shaanxi is an inland Province of China bordered by seven others: Sichuan, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia, Shanxi, Henan and Hubei. Occupying an area of 205,600 km2 it extends 870 km from north to south and between 200 and 500 km from west to east, see Figure below. The most recent (1997) population estimate for Shaanxi is 35.7 million, distributed unequally between its three regions:

• Northern loess plateau - about 14 % of the provincial population, centred on Yanan city, Yulin prefecture and their surrounding areas;
• Central Shaanxi plain - about 60 % of the provincial population, centred on the cities and surrounding areas of Xi?ˉan, Baoji, Xianyang, Tongchuan and Weinan;
• Qinling-Daba mountain area - about 26 % of the provincial population, centred on the cities and prefectures of Hanzhong, Ankhang and Shangluo.

Future population growth is expected to be evenly spread across the Province. Planned limits to the provincial population for the years 2000 and 2010 are 37.2 million and 40 million, respectively. Each region displays distinctive physical, climatic, economic, environmental and ecological features.

1.1 Northern Shaanxi - the Loess Plateau
Lying at an altitude of between 900 and 1500 m above sea level, the loess plateau occupies about 45% of the provincial land area. The area is relatively dry for much of the year, most rain falling in the summer. Indicative average monthly temperatures (oC) and rainfall (mm) for this region is:
  Jan Feb Mar     Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
T oC -6 -1 3 13 19 22 24 22 15 8 4 -4
Mm  0 7 6 68 11 61 103 183 29  41 17 7


Vestiges of the Great Wall of China run northeast through the region. To the north of the Great Wall lie the sand dunes and rocky outcrops of the Maowuso desert while to the south the more typical loess landscape of fragmented plains, ridges, hills, ravines and gullies prevails - the result of erosion following storms and flashfloods. The region is a major source of primary energy: coal, gas and petroleum oil.

The Yellow River runs from north to south between Shaanxi and Shanxi Provinces and defines the eastern border of Shaanxi loess plateau. Seasonal variations in the flowrates of the rivers draining the plateau are high; all contain silt and sand at high concentrations from soil erosion; all discharge to the Yellow River. The Yan He (7,700 km2 catchment area) and Wujing He (21,000 km2 catchment area) discharge to the Yellow River directly whilst the Luo He and Hulu He discharge indirectly via the Wei He.

1.2 Central Shaanxi Plain
Lying at an altitude of about 500 m above sea level, the central plain occupies about 19% of the provincial land area while supporting 59% of the provincial population. The rich soil of the plain, formed by windblown loess and river borne alluvial sediments, is supportive of agricultural development. The region is the principal agricultural base in Shaanxi. Though suffering from drought in recent years, rain on the central plain tends to be spread over the year. Indicative average monthly temperatures (oC) and rainfall (mm) for the region are:

  Jan Feb Mar     Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
T oC 0 2 7 14 21 23 27 26 19 12 8 1
Mm  6 9 21 70 7 99 65 40 46 93 56 17

The region contains many of Shaanxi cities. The Wei He (33,000 km2 catchment area within Shaanxi) runs from west to east through the region: Baoji and Tongguan lie at the western and eastern edges, respectively. In addition to being the most populous and industrially developed region of Shaanxi today, this region has great historical significance as the seat of the Zhou, Qin, Han, Sui and Tang dynasties. The famous preserved relicts of these era provide the foundation of a major tourist industry.

The principal source of the Wei He is in Gansu Province. Its tributaries include the Jing He and Luo He flowing from the northern loess plateau and a number of streams flowing from the northern slopes of the Qinling Mountains. The Wei He joins the Yellow River at Laotongguan.

1.3 Southern Shaanxi - Qinling-Daba Mountain Area
The Qinling-Daba mountain area occupies about 36% of the provincial land area. The Qinling Mountains are in the north of the region and reach heights of up to 3,770 m while the Daba Mountains in the south are a little lower, reaching heights of up to 2,930 m above sea level. These mountain regions are isolated and of great ecological significance, supporting a diverse range of fauna and flora (animal and plant species) many of which - including the Giant Panda - are rare, endangered or both. Lying between the Qinling and Daba Mountains is the Han Jiang river basin. The basin enjoys a warm, humid climate. Average monthly temperatures (oC)and rainfall (mm) for the cities of this southern region are:

  Jan Feb Mar     Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
T oC 2 5 8 15 21 23 26 28 19 13 10 5
Mm  9 9 20 55 22 144 76 39 76 82 62 18

Three cities lie within the basin: Hanzhong, Ankhang and Shangluo. Hanzhong lies on the edge of a western plain that is a rich source of sub-tropical agricultural and forestry products - known as the grain house?ˉ of Shaanxi. Ankhang lies further to the east in the valley made by the Han Jiang as it threads its way between the Qinling and Daba Mountains on route to Wuhan in Hubei province where the river merges with the Yangtze River. The development and exploitation of the Han Jiang has strategic significance for the mooted south-north water transfer scheme.

With the exception of streams flowing to the Wei He from north of the Qinling watershed, the Han Jiang and other rivers draining this region form tributaries of the Yangtze River. All the headwaters of the Han Jiang catchment area (48,000 km2) lie within Shaanxi Province.

In the east of the region the Dan Jiang (7,400 km2 catchment area in Shaanxi) leaves Shaanxi for Henan Province before flowing into the Danjiangkou Reservoir in Hubei Province. Rising in the west of the region, the Jialing Jiang (9,900 km2 catchment area in Shaanxi) flows into Gansu Province, then re-enters Shaanxi before flowing into Sichuan Province. Ultimately, the Jialing Jiang joins the Yangtze River at Chongqing.

2. Natural Resources

2.1 Energy
Substantial reserves of fossil fuels - coal, natural gas, and petroleum oil - lie in the northern loess plateau and northern parts of the central plain. Coal extraction in particular has resulted in severe soil erosion, whilst coal burning is a major cause of air pollution in urban areas and poor quality air inside people?ˉs homes. Shaanxi ranks as the third Province in China for its coal reserves - estimated to be 100 billion tonnes. Raw coal production in 1996 was about 50 million tonnes but in 1997 declined to about 36 million tonnes. Both figures are much lower than the planned 21st century raw coal production of about 100 million tonnes/y.

Natural gas reserves in Shaanxi Province (Jingbian gas field) are estimated as 1,700 billion m3 (proven). Development will focus on exploiting this gas field; transporting the gas to Xi?ˉan, Beijing, Tianjin and Yinchuan; and the development of chemical manufacturing industry using gas as the basic feedstock. Currently the gas field produces about 1.7 million m3/y. Eighty eight percent (88 %) is transported to Beijing, leaving only 12 % available for local use.

Petroleum oil fields exist in Ansai and Yanchang; their reserves are 105 million and 280 million tonnes, respectively. Current (1997) crude oil production is about 2.9 million tonnes/year. There are intentions to develop these fields further and to extend the refinery plant at Yanan.

Considerable hydraulic power potential also exists. However, the heavy sediment burden carried by the rivers - especially those in the northern and central regions - severely reduces the extent to which this can be exploited in practice.

2.2 Minerals
Shaanxi Province enjoys abundant mineral resources also. The province ranks in the top ten of all PRC for the proven reserves of 60 minerals. Mostly they are located in the Qinling-Daba mountain region and hilly fringes of the central plain e.g. Tongchuan and Tongguan. Minerals exploited include:

• limestone for cement (9-10 million tonne cement/y) and iron/steel production (about 1 million tonne/y);
• non-ferrous metals (about 63,000 tonne/y) including gold, silver, platinum, mercury, aluminium, titanium, molybdenum, copper, lead and zinc;
• iron ore (1.8 million tonne/y).
2.3 Water
Shaanxi Province does not enjoy abundant water resources and severe water shortages affect industry and urban areas. The provincial water demand was 13 billion m3/y in 1997 but the amount actually supplied was less than 8 billion m3/. Further, substantial growth in water demand is forecast: to 14 billion m3/y in 2000 and 18 billion m3/y in 2010.

Most of the population lives in the central plain and loess plateau regions within the Yellow River catchment area. However, the Yellow River and its tributaries in Shaanxi comprise only 25 % of the provincial surface water resource (42 billion m3/y) and carry heavy sediment loads. The sediment loads make it very difficult to exploit the rivers for water supply and irrigation. Consequently, such surface waters that can be exploited need to be protected and conserved to ensure their sustainable use.

Surface waters in the southern Qinling-Daba Mountain region are more abundant, average annual river flows being about 3 times that in the northern regions. The Han Jiang and other rivers in this area do not carry such heavy sediment loads hence there is much less constraint on their potential use for river exploitation for (domestic and industrial) water supply and irrigation purposes.

Groundwater for domestic/industrial supply and the irrigation of agricultural land is available in the central plain but the resource has been used in a non-sustainable way for drinking water abstraction. Water has been abstracted at rates in excess of the recharge rate, with the result that water levels have been lowered and there has been land subsidence.

2.4 Land
Farming land occupies about 27% of the total land area of Shaanxi, mostly lying in the central plain. Woodland and, mostly poor quality, grassland occupies about 60% of the land area: forested land comprises 24 % of the total.

2.5 Biological
The province enjoys a richly diverse flora and fauna most especially in the Qinling-Daba mountains: Shaanxi is the second most significant province in P R China for the protection and preservation of the giant panda. Twelve (12) natural protection zones (NPZ) have been established over the period 1965 to 1997, occupying about 1.5 % of the total land area of Shaanxi. Eight NPZs (215,000 hectares) located in the middle-west Qinling region and the northern counties of Shenmu and Fugu are designed to protect forest eco-systems and the wild animals and plants that they support. Four NPZs (95,000 hectares) serve to protect wetland areas and the birdlife they support.

The Qinling-Daba mountains are the home for 5 Grade 1 rare animals: giant panda, golden monkey, takin, tiger and red ibis. In addition, macaque, swan and mandarin duck are found here as are 37 state protected rare plants of the second and third grade.

Alluvial wetlands associated with the Weihe, Luo and Yellow Rivers provide a winter feeding habitat for over 20 species of water birds including mandarin duck, geese, and greenheaded duck. In the 1950s these wetlands were inhabited by rare birds, including swan and red ibis, but pollution and ecological damage since that time has driven them away.
3. ECONOMIC CONDITIONS
Shaanxi lags far behind other Provinces and Municipalities in terms of economic wealth. The below table lists the per capita GDP of Shaanxi Province for the year 1996 and compares this with that of China as a whole and other Provinces and Municipalities. At one extreme, Shanghai enjoyed more than seven times the per capita GDP of Shaanxi. Other provinces having a mix of river basins, industrial areas and mountainous zones similar to Shaanxi Province - such as Jiangsu and Fujian provinces - also have per capita GDP figures considerably higher than Shaanxi.

Table Comparative Regional Per Capita GDPs
  Nominal GDP(Yuan/person) Ratio to Shaanxi
Shaanxi Prov. 3,313 1.00
Shanghai Mun. 22,275 6.72
Beijing Mun. 15,044 4.54
Tianjin Mun. 12,270 3.70
Guangdong Prov. 9,513 2.87
Zhejiang Prov. 9,455 2.85
Jiangsu Prov. 8,447 2.55
Fujian Prov. 8,136 2.46
Liaoning Prov. 7,730 2.33
Shandong Prov. 6,834 2.06
Helongjiang Prov. 6,468 1.95
Sichuan Prov. 3,763 1.14
PR China (whole) 5,634 1.70

Source: China Statistical Yearbook (1997)
4. INDUSTRIAL STRUCTURE

4.1 Energy
Energy consumption in Shaanxi grew by 5.5 % per year on average from 1980 through to 1995. However despite this growth, the province richness in energy resources and the fact that poor air quality is the major environmental concern, its energy consumption on a per capita basis - about 0.78 tonne/y standard coal per person in 1995 - is substantially lower than the national average of 2 tonnes/y per person. Even taking GDP differences into account the conclusion remains that the intensity of Shaanxi energy consumption is less than in China as a whole. However, the specific energy consumption (tonne standard coal per year per person) is projected to increase significantly to 0.94 in 2000 and to 1.6 by year 2010.

Coal is overwhelmingly the principal source of primary energy use in Shaanxi. The below figure is based on information generated by two research projects initiated by SPPC and other Provincial agencies to provide a basis for the tenth Five-Year Plan and longer term programmes; It shows that the major reliance on coal is planned to continue into the future.


Using information drawn from the same study, the below figure shows that the major demand for energy is expected to come from the manufacturing industrial sector (secondary) as now. This sector includes electricity and thermal power generation.

4.2 Manufacturing Industry
The basis of a comprehensive manufacturing industry was established in Shaanxi in the two decades following the creation of the modern Chinese state. Over 15 % of the key industrial projects included in the first Five-Year Plan were located in Shaanxi and many factories, research institutions and universities relocated to Shaanxi from south-east China in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Manufacturing industries engaged in making mechanical and electrical engineering equipment, military aircraft and ancillary equipment, and textiles formed the core, while new mining zones were also established.

Since 1979, the reforms and the opening of China to the outside world, the focus has shifted to restructuring and transforming the technological basis of industry, promoting investment and developing the non-state controlled enterprises. High voltage electrical transformers and distribution equipment, rocket engines, aeroplane manufacture, precision machine tools and electronic products now feature strongly in the manufacturing sector. However, production at present continues to be geared towards heavy industry: 61 % of the industrial added value in year 1997 was accounted for by heavy industry, 39 % by light industry.
In 1997 there were over 830,000 industrial enterprises in the province, producing goods worth 204 billion RMB. Most are small - defined by industry specific criteria. Table 2.2 summarises available data concerning their output by ownership type. The SOE and collective sectors account for about 42 % of total output (RMB), TVIEs for 52 % and others (including overseas Chinese and foreign invested enterprises) for just 8%: difficulties of data collection for these other enterprises may underestimate both their numbers and output value.

There is a large number of township and village industrial enterprises (TVIEs) though accurate statistics are not easy to obtain. In 1996/7 there were about 820,000 TVIEs employing 3.68 million people - over 25% of the provincial labour force. They may be viewed as a means of alleviating rural poverty; employing otherwise surplus, idle labourers; and of gradually modernising the countryside. Most TVIEs are located in the central Shaanxi plain, particularly in the counties associated with Xi?ˉan, Xianyang and Baoji, but are also quite prominent in Hanzhong, in the Qinling-Daba region. TVIEs are engaged in a wide range of manufacturing industry including: paper making, printing and dyeing, electroplating, leather making, chemicals, metallurgical processing, brewing, non-ferrous metal manufacturing, coal, sulphur and coke production.
Table Enterprise Distribution by Ownership Type and Output
(Data provided by SPCA staff)
Ownership Type No. of Enterprises Average output
(million RMB)		  Total output
(million RMB)
SOE:
Central
Provincial		 291
2,502 		111
12.7		 32,400
34,800
Collective   9,073 2.13 19,300
Other (Note 1):
Private
Joint
Share
Foreign invested
Overseas Chinese (2)
Not differentiated
102
44
175
138
105
9		 4.32
10.8
27.9
46.0
30.3
1.11		 441
475
4,880
6,350
3,180
10
TVIEs:
Township
Village
Joint
Private
Sub-total
 10,879
29,488
16,245
763,742
820,354
 1.43
0.756
0.504
0.0738
0.125
 15,60
22,300
8,190
56,300
102,000
Total 832,793 0.245 204,000

(1) Note - these data probably underestimate the number of such enterprises and their output.
(2) Overseas Chinese from Hong Kong, Macao, Taiwan

5. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY

5.1 Urban Areas - Air
Air quality monitoring began in earnest in 1995 and the monitoring frequency has increased year by year since then. The record is too short to establish a significant time series but below figure shows that, on average, air quality tends to be especially poor in the winter period (January to March) across the Province with a high degree of non-compliance with PRC air quality standards. The bar-chart also shows regional differences, with cities in the colder northern and central regions experiencing much poorer air quality than the southern region. (Also, the southern region is isolated from the central region by the Qinling-Daba mountains).
igure Regional Air Quality (1995-1997)
(Based on data provided by SEMC)


However, regional data tend to downplay the severe pollution that can occur more locally. Based on data provided by SEMC, the beloe figure shows the existence of certain pollution hot-spots, in particular the city of Tongchuan with regard to particulate matter - much emitted from cement plants.


5.2 Urban Areas - Surface Water
Rivers become polluted or more polluted as they pass the urban areas, failing to meet Class II of the Water Quality Standard. The pollution results from the discharge of untreated or partially treated wastewater from both industrial and domestic sources. Surface water run-off and the leaching of fertilisers and pesticides from farmland also contribute to river pollution.

River pollution has driven most cities to abstract groundwater as a source of drinking water supply. Groundwater provides the major resource supplemented to some extent by surface water drawn from reservoirs constructed in the hills. Groundwater is being abstracted in many areas at rates which exceed the natural level of replenishment, i.e. at unsustainable rates.

5.3 River Catchments
Tributaries of the Yellow River - the Wei He, Wujing River and Yan He - fail to satisfy the relevant water quality standard for pollution indicators COD, BOD and NH3-N. The Wei He in particular is polluted, failing to meet the standard at all sampling stations along its length: headwaters which used to satisfy Class I water quality commonly fail now because of oil and other pollutants discharged by TVIEs and from tourist developments. The Yellow River and its tributaries all carry heavy sediment loads resulting from soil erosion.

Tributaries of the Yangtze River are less polluted or not polluted. The Dan Jiang fails to meet the standard set for BOD, NH3-N and volatile phenol, but not to the extent that tributaries of the Yellow River fail the standard values. The Jialing Jiang fails occasionally the standard for NH3-N and oil. The Han Jiang water quality is the best of the Province major rivers.

5.4 Land
The northern loess plateau and central plain of Shaanxi have a fragile soil structures that are liable to erosion. This area extends to 80 % of the farming land and supports 70 % of the provincial population. Annual soil erosion rates in the areas most severely effected lie from 5,000 tonne/km2 to over 10,000 tonne/km2. The 800 million tonnes per year suspended solids carried by the Yellow River from Shaanxi accounts for about 50% of the total suspended solids load of the Yellow River.

In recent years the large scale development and exploitation of energy and mineral resources - including the growth of mining activities undertaken by TVIEs, collectives and private operators - has increased the rate of land loss. The current rate of land loss has been estimated as 4,500 ha per year resulting from landslides, mud avalanches, subsidence and soil erosion. In 1995 the estimated cumulative area of lost land was 54,000 ha with only 17% restored. Equivalent figures for the year 2000 have been estimated as 65,000 ha and 38% respectively.

Mineral mines currently developed or planned for development before year 2010 are mostly located on the outer fringes of the Qinling-Daba mountains. Hence they might pose little threat to the endangered species that dwell in the interior of the mountainous region. However, future extension of mining activities further into the interior could have potentially grave consequences for wildlife.

The use of organic fertilisers in farming continues to reduce as farmers prefer the convenience of inorganic fertilisers. However, in addition to greater leaching of nutrients to surface and groundwaters, changing fertiliser use is leading to poorer soil structure, reduced land productivity and greater soil erosion. Overuse of pesticides in farming has resulted in high residual levels in the soil and agricultural products. Perversely, it has also led to some increase in the number of pests as natural predators have been killed and pests have acquired immunity.

6. ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES

6.1 Water Supply
A wholesome water supply for the urban residential populations is an essential environmental service. Water for residential use in Shaanxi cities and prefectures is supplied by the local state-owned water works. Both groundwater and surface water sources are exploited for this purpose. Pollution of surface waters has caused the agencies to exploit more distant (and expensive) surface water supplies, in some cases, and to make substantial use of groundwater resources.

All the cities and prefectures are provided with water. However, the demand for water has outstripped the agencies abilities to supply it, subject to financial constraints as they are. There is also the need for the agencies to exploit groundwater in a sustainable way, to protect groundwater from overexploitation. Both these aims are compromised by the low prices that domestic users and enterprises are charged for water supply - prices that are substantially less than the marginal operating and maintenance costs of water supply and make no contribution to capital cost recovery.


6.2 Wastewater Collection and Disposal
The system of municipal wastewater collection and disposal in the urban areas of Shaanxi is at a rudimentary stage of development. Treatment of industrial wastewaters is essential but, given the conditions in Shaanxi, the treatment of wastewater arising from the domestic population is needed also if surface water quality standards are to be met. To date, municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been installed to serve the cities of Xi?ˉan and Tongchuan only. However, the EPP contains proposals to provide many more WWTPs in Shaanxi, though the coverage is not comprehensive, see below. Brief descriptions of the situation in Xi?ˉan and Tongchuan are given below.

a) Xi?ˉan
About 4 million residents live in the Urban Districts of Xi?ˉan city. Between 85-90 % of these live in homes equipped with flush toilets connected to a wastewater collection system: the rest of the population, is served currently by nightsoil collection. There are two WWTPs in operation, the responsibility of Xi?ˉan Municipal Administration Bureau.

Beishiqiao WWTP serves a population of 0.7 million, while Dengjiacun WWTP serves a population of 0.35 million people. The population served by these systems is charged 0.16 Yuan/m3 through an addition to the water rate, substantially less than the rate of 0.5-0.8 Yuan/m3 required to fully recover costs. Wastewater from the remaining city population - plus that from the 2 million residents living outside the central Urban Districts - is discharged to the Weihe, contributing substantially to its organic and nutrient pollution. There are plans to build and operate WWTP capacity to serve these other people.

b) Tongchuan
A WWTP serving Tongchuan was constructed in 1985 but was not put into sustained operation. The causes were twofold:
• a mis-match between the design specification and the technology/equipment provided resulted in poor performance;
• the decision of the city government not to impose charges on the population served by the WWTP resulted in insufficient funds being available to pay for maintenance and operation. This decision was influenced by the relatively high charges imposed for water supply in this city, the source being a surface water reservoir constructed distant from the city.
6.3 Solid Waste Management
Municipal solid waste is collected and disposed of by city sanitation bureaux: no charges are imposed in Shaanxi for providing this service. Brief summaries of the current and planned SWM arrangements in Xi?ˉan, Xianyang and Tongchuan are given below as examples.

a) Xi?ˉan
Waste collection services are concentrated in the six Urban Districts in which live 4 million of the total city population of 6 million. The Sanitation Bureau currently collects and disposes of about 1,500 tonnes/d of mixed domestic and light commercial/industrial/construction waste, about 60% of the total waste generated. The annual SWM operation and maintenance cost to the Sanitation Bureau in Xi?ˉan is 24 million Yuan/year.

About 80% of the collected waste is taken some 16.5 km to a newly constructed landfill site close to the village of Jiang Cun Gao. Phase I landfill operations at this site commenced in 1996. Virtually all aspects of the site, its operational practices and associated infrastructure are of a remarkably high standard.

However, current collection practices result in many waste source types being mixed together, making the potential for high levels of down-stream materials recycling and recovery more difficult. There also remains a high proportion of waste generated outside the urban centres that is not efficiently collected and is currently disposed of in a number of small local dump sites - often non-regulated and uncontrolled.

There are some 70 - 80 hospitals of various sizes in Xi?ˉan generating residential waste (for free collection and disposal by the Sanitation Bureau) and hazardous medical wastes that have to be bagged for disposal to landfill or incinerated. Each make their own arrangements for solid wastes disposal, engaging in little to no collaboration.

b) Xianyang
The urban population of some 930,000 generates around 1,000 tonnes/day of mixed domestic and light industrial/construction waste. This is currently dumped in several sites around the urban centre. The Sanitation Bureau is responsible for the collection and disposal of both domestic and construction waste - although industrial and some other wastes are mixed with these arisings at collection points. A number of the hospitals have facilities to burn waste (producing residual ash), while others directly deposit wastes with domestic garbage.

c) Tongchuan
Tongchuan, with a population of around 820,000, generates about 400 tonnes/day (domestic) and 200 tonnes/day (construction) waste which is collected by a specialist waste collection and transportation Company wholly owned by the Sanitation Bureau. All waste is currently taken to various disposal sites, some up to 3.5 km from the city boundary. Industries generate about 620,000 tonnes of waste per year, although data indicates that about 143,000 tonnes/year is re-used (1996 statistics). Industries may operate disposal sites themselves with appropriate approvals or they can take waste to the municipal dump sites, provided they obtain the approval of the Sanitation Bureau. Waste management costs in Tongchuan total 1 million Yuan/y.



7. ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SUTIATION OF SHAANXI PROVINCE

7.1 Sulphur Dioxide Fee
Air pollution caused by SO2 emissions from coal burning (and industrial process gas emissions) is a major environmental problem in Shaanxi. Therefore, the introduction in 1 October 1996 of a sulphur dioxide fee of 0.20 Yuan per kg SO2 emitted from commercial and industrial activities is a welcome use of an MBI. Under this system 90% of the collected fees are returned to enterprises for SO2 reduction projects while the remainder is retained by EPBs for their use. The fee is levied in five cities located in acid rain and SO2 control zones ¨C Xi?ˉan, Tongchuan, Weinan, Hanzhong and Shangluo - and on power generation plants throughout the Province.

In 1996 these five cities and power plants accounted for about 80% of the controlled emissions across the Province. This MBI ought to encourage fuel switching (to lower sulphur fuels), the installation and use of SO2 abatement technologies, the adoption of cleaner technologies for coal use (including coal washing), more efficient fuel use and other means of reducing SO2 emissions from industrial activity.

7.2 Pollution Levy Fee
A major instrument of State environmental policy, the pollution levy system was introduced to Shaanxi Province in 1980. The system has the principal objective of encouraging industrial enterprises to comply with the discharge and emission standards that are relevant to their industrial sector. It does this through:
• pollution levy charges imposed as a penalty on an enterprise by an EPB (PCD) for direct discharges to rivers and emissions to air that exceed the concentration limits set in the standards;
• by subsequently returning to an enterprise some 80 % of the pollution levy collected from it - the refund is for the construction of approved pollution prevention and control projects, and takes the form of a loan or grant. Project approval is the joint responsibility of the local EPB and finance bureau;
• fines imposed by an EPB on an enterprise for violation of other regulatory aspects of the pollution levy system - collectively known as the four small pieces?±. The collected fines are administered jointly (for EPB use) by the EPB and Finance Bureau of the relevant level of government.

7.3 Environmental Impact Assessment
EIA in Shaanxi Province has been practised voluntarily since 1979 and since 1982-86 on a regulatory basis. Twenty five (27) organisations have been licensed to date by SEPB to undertake EIAs (10 Class A licences, 17 Class B licences).
The EIA procedure applied to a proposed development project in Shaanxi is three-stage:
• stage I: a registered project proposal is reviewed by various government agencies. They include the local Planning Commission and EPB or, for large projects, the SPPC and SEPB.
• stage II: the project feasibility study and EIS or EIF is prepared;

• stage III: the EPB/SEPB (same department as in stage I) approves the project if it believes the mitigation measures proposed in the EIA/EIF to prevent or control environmental impacts would be effective, though it may require that additional mitigation measures be included. The environmental mitigation plan prepared under the EIA procedure forms a basis for the three simultaneous programme to be implemented by the developer.

7.4 Three Simultaneous Policy
The three simultaneous?± policy - the provision of measures to prevent and control environmental pollution from new industrial manufacturing facilities - has been in force since 1980 in Shaanxi Province. Regulations mandate that any new industrial enterprise, or an existing enterprise looking to expand or change its production processes must carry out three tasks:
• first simultaneous: design pollution prevention and control into the new facility, with an expenditure of at least 7 % of the total proposed investment in pollution control
• second simultaneous: construct the facilities designed in the first simultaneous. EPB (the NPD or PRD) are authorised to inspect construction sites to check that the pollution prevention and control facilities are being built as proposed;
• third simultaneous: obtain a final ?°stamp of approval?± from the EPB, and then an operating licence from the local industrial and commercial administration bureau. The enterprise must then operate the facilities as proposed; they are liable to a fine if they cease to operate a PCF.

7.5 Discharge Permit System for Total Load Control
The discharge permit system for emissions and wastewater discharges was introduced in 1995 to implement SEPA policy. Goal-based permits have been adopted, allocating pollutant loads to enterprises on the basis of targets for different industrial sectors. SEPB calculated the target reductions as the difference between the pollutant loads discharged in 1995 - inevitably a crude estimate given the low intensity monitoring of discharges and lack of flow monitoring - and the pollutant loads permitted under the national standards.

Based on an analysis of the industrial production process, treatment technology, and economic practicability, SEPB determined discharge limits for specific industries within a limited time period. Individual enterprises have to apply for discharge permits that embody the total pollution load control approach.

7.6 Ambient Environmental Monitoring
7.6.1 Air and Water
Air quality in the urban areas is measured at up to five sites in each city, each site representative of either an industrial, business and commerce, residential or nominally clean check area. Measurements are made for total suspended particulate (TSP), SO2, NOx and, at some grossly polluted sites such as Tongchuan, settleable dust.

River waters are monitored at a number of provincial controlled monitoring stations. For example, there are eight such sections on the Weihe in Shaanxi. Rivers are sampled twice a year at each station at high (July and September), average (May and November) and low flow (January and April) periods - giving six samples per year. Samples are analysed for pH, dissolved oxygen, COD, BOD, NH3-N, nitrite nitrogen, volatile phenol, cyanide, mercury, Cr6+ and petroleum oil. This monitoring provides useful background data on water quality.



7.6.2 Wastewater Discharges and Emissions to Air
Industrial emissions to air and wastewater discharges are monitored though EPB environmental monitoring centres take a limited number of spot samples only in a year. The lack of more intensive monitoring of what may be a highly variable pollutant concentration is a weakness in the present system.

Not only does such monitoring give a more reliable value for the long-term average concentration but the more intensive data can help inform both the enterprise and the EPB on waste arisings and opportunities for minimising and controlling wastewater discharges. An equally great weakness is the lack of flow monitoring. Without concurrent measured flow rate data, total pollutant load values can be determined only indirectly from estimated flowrate data - estimates that may be quite unreliable. These are areas where substantial improvements are possible. Improvements in the quality and extent of emissions monitoring data would help inform policy development and environmental management, but government will need to be prepared to provide the necessary additional resources.

7.6.3 Environmental Monitoring - Hazardous Wastes and SWM Facilities
It is not evident that EPBs undertake any significant monitoring or enforcement of standards associated with hazardous waste management and SWM facilities. Resource constraints are the major reason. For improvements to be made, governments will need to be as prepared to provide the necessary resources to monitor operations as they are in making some investments.


7.7 Cleaner Production
Cleaner production (CP) can be defined as the prevention and minimisation of waste generation at source - in the production workshops - as distinct from end-of-pipe?ˉ pollution abatement which involves treating the wastes generated.

It is against this background that the laudable efforts since 1994 of the SEPB to encourage the adoption of CP may be viewed. SEPB established the Shaanxi Provincial Cleaner Production Guide Centre (SCPGC) as the implementing agency to develop and promote CP within the Province with the support of city EPBs. Since the beginning of 1994 SCPGC has been active in 349 enterprises in 16 industrial sectors and 10 cities of Shaanxi. With a current staff complement of 10, its activities have included:
• training technical staff in the skills required to undertake CP environmental audits. Twelve staff have qualified as environmental auditors, forming a base for applying CP in Shaanxi;
• supported CP demonstration projects and audits in a variety of industries:
• liaison with international CP experts, and undertaking joint research on CP policy and methodology with specialists and university staff from many other parts of P R China;
• co-operation with other government institutes on CP policy and practice.




8.INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES



8.1 SEPB Funding
SEPB and EPBs receive some of their budget requirement directly from SPG or city governments, respectively. However, they also retain for their own use a proportion of the collected pollution levy fees (20 %), SO2 emissions fees (10 %). They also retain the fines collected from regulatory infringements, the four small pieces?±.

8.2 Divisional Responsibilities and Resources
The Planning and Finance Division (PFD) of SEPB has responsibility for formulating environmental protection plans; managing construction projects?ˉ investments in environmental protection; managing environmental protection projects funded from foreign sources; for the pollution levy fund, compiling environmental statistics and for information dissemination. PFD has seven staff currently.

The Policy and Regulations Division (PRD) of SEPB formulates policies and regulations for environmental protection and supervises their implementation. PRD has five staff at present.

The Pollution Management Division (PMD) of SEPB co-ordinates and formulates policies regulations and technology standards for pollution prevention; promotes the uptake of environmental protection and management systems; guides the adoption of cleaner production by industry through its implementing agency the SCPGC; supervises model demonstration projects for pollution prevention and control; formulates regulations concerning water resource protection and supervises their implementation; preparing local river basin water pollution control plans and supervising their implementation; formulating regulations regarding the management of solid and hazardous wastes, and supervising their implementation; guiding local institutes on the conduct of SWM demonstration projects. PMD has 6 staff at present.

The International Co-operation Division (ICD) of SEPB is responsible for international co-operation and exchange. ICD has two staff currently.

The Provincial Environmental Monitoring Centre (PEMC) of SEPB is responsible for the monitoring of air, water, land and biological pollution; investigation of pollution incidents; environmental impact assessment; design of environmental projects; provision of environmental information; CP promotion; and provision of ISO 14000 series consultancy. PEMC has 139 staff currently.
Shaanxi Environment Protection, Copyright 2007